Keeping in mind the instruction strategies and necessary components, it is important to "develop and use vocabulary reinforcement activities in your content instruction" (Rupley, Logan & Nichols, 1999, p. 3). There are several well-known and established activities but "the extent and variety of vocabulary reinforcement activities is limited only by the imagination" (Misulis, 1999, p. 4). Included with rich activities should be a visual display of words in the room such as room content labeling (sink, door, etc.) and a word wall to name a couple. Additionally, Daniel (1996) stresses the importance of celebrating students' growth and achievements. This promotes self-esteem and confidence in learning abilities. Also, recognition should encourage students to continue learning. The celebration could be as simple as a sticker, certificate, or verbal recognition or as involved as lunch with the teacher or a class party.

It is important to activate prior knowledge by "examining meanings of key words and clarifying misconceptions about major concepts" (Manning, 1999, p. 1). This can be done through students verbalizing what they know and want to know. Brainstorming and categorizing activities aid in this endeavor. Bryant et. al. (1999) suggest other activities that can activate prior knowledge as well as increase it. They include field trips or videos, developing prerequisite knowledge, and examining the physical features of the text (text preview).

With the pre-reading activities completed, the students are now prepared to begin reading the text. Additional activities are necessary to ensure that students learn and understand the material. Bryant et. al. (1999) and Manning (1999) suggest the following activities for the reading stage. Promote self-monitoring skills by setting a purpose for reading and providing questions to consider while reading. Also have students underline, if possible, or write words down that they do not understand. These unknown words could be handled in a variety of ways. Students could be required to look up the definitions in the dictionary, or group or classroom discussions could clarify the meanings. Once clarified the words could be added to a running dictionary for the text on a chart, blackboard, or personal journals.

Ediger (1999) and Misulis (1999) have cited activities that would encourage vocabulary development through listening and speaking. Videos are one avenue. After viewing a video teachers engage the students in discussion. Specifically, students can use a single word or phrase that is reflective of what they learned. Once a list is generated, students can then combine the concepts together and categorize them.

Another avenue is listening-centers. Students could engage in group discussions following listening to a book. Results could then be recorded in journals or class charts for all to see. Along the same lines would be story time where the teacher reads to the students and leads class discussions.

Other listening and speaking activities include interest centers, oral reports, story telling, guest speakers, and computers.

The following reading and writing activities have been gleaned from the research of Ediger (1999), Misulis (1999), and Rupley et. al. (1999). Reading and writing are at the core of learning, along with students engaging regularly in activities. The key is to develop a variety of activities that promote vocabulary development and maintain a maximum of interest.

A quality spelling program is a must. As pupils practice correct spelling they become involved in vocabulary development and reading. Ample emphasis should be placed upon students doing as much writing as possible. Activities include journals, diaries, logs, book reports, outlines, poems, developing a dictionary, proofreading, editing, and subject reports. Reinforcement activities may consist of matching exercises, multiple-choice exercises, word puzzles, writing activities, classification or categorizing activities, analogies, games, demonstrations or performance-types of activities, and projects that require use of vocabulary words. For a more detailed explanation of vocabulary activities refer to the appendix.

While some vocabulary expansion can take place without direct instruction, "teachers should engage in direct teaching or modeling, talking explicitly about word meaning and structure" (Ediger, 1999, p. 7) to ensure maximum vocabulary development. Since "vocabulary expands when children have numerous opportunities to encounter new words" (Rupley, Logan, & Nichols, 1999, p. 3), vocabulary instruction needs to take place across the curriculum. In depth learning is preferable over casual introduction. Therefore, for words "to be used and committed to long term memory, they must be reinforced many times in meaningful ways" (Misulis, 1999, p. 1). To accomplish this "the teacher needs to select worthwhile activities for pupils" (Ediger, 1999, p. 2).

Vocabulary is a door behind which lies a wealth of knowledge and educators hold the key. It is imperative that educators use the key to open the door not only to the wealth of knowledge but also to strategies that will serve children throughout their lifetime.

Bryant, Diane Pedrotty, Ugel, Nicole, Thompson, Sylvia, & Hamff, Allison. (1999). Instructional strategies for content-area reading instructions. Intervention in School and Clinic, 34(5), p293, 12p, 2c, 1d.

Daniel, Patricia L., (1996). A celebration of literacy: Nine reluctant students and one determined teacher. Language Arts, 73(6), 420-428.

Ediger, Marlow. (1999). Reading and vocabulary development. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 26(1), p7, 9p.

Flood, James, Jensen, Julie M., Lapp, Diane, & Squire, James R. (Eds.). (1991). Handbook of Research on Teaching the English Language Arts. New York, New York: MacMillian Publishing Company.

Gairns, Ruth, & Redman, Stuart. (1986). Working with Words: A guide to Teaching and Learning Vocabulary. New York, New York: Cambridge University Press.

Higgins, Norman & Hess, Laura. (1999). Using electronic books to promote vocabulary development. Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 31(4), p425, 6p, 2c.

Jensen, Sharon J., & Duffelmeyer, Frederick A. (1996). Enhancing possible sentences through cooperative learning. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 39(8), 658-659.

Laflamme, John G. (1997). The effect of the multiple exposure vocabulary method and the target reading/writing strategy on test scores. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 40(5), p372, 10p, 6c, 1d.

Manning, Maryann. (1999). Uncovering meaning in content reading. Teaching Pre K-8, 29(6), p93, 2p.

Misulis, Katherine. (1999). Making vocabulary development manageable in content instruction. Contemporary Education, 70(2), p25, 5p.

Robb, Laura. (1997). Stretch your students' reading vocabulary. Instructor, 106(8), p34, 1d, 1bw.

Rupley, William H., Logan, John W., & Nichols, William D. (1999). Vocabulary instruction in a balanced reading program. Reading Teacher, 52(4), p336, 11p, 5d.

Stahl, Steven A. (1985). To teach a word well: A framework for vocabulary instruction. Reading World, 24(3), 16-27.

Stahl, Steven A. (1986). Three principles of effective vocabulary instruction. Journal of Reading, 29(7), 662-668.

Ur, Penny, & Wright, Andrew. (1992). Five-minute activities, a resource book of short activities. New York, New York: Cambridge University Press.

Write 10 to 15 words from the your most current vocabulary lists on the board. Tell the students to choose any five of the words and write them down. Now read the word definitions in random order and have the children cross off the words on their list that match the given definition. The first one to cross off all their words calls bingo and wins. Variations of this activity include calling synonyms or antonyms (Ur, 1992, p. 4).

Take a word the class has recently learned and write it on the board. Have the students call out all the words that they associate with it and record these words around the original word in a sunray fashion. This activity can also be done as individuals, in pairs, or groups.

Variations include:

Instead of guessing, reread the sentence containing the word you don't know, as well as the sentences that come before and after it.

Try to find clues in those sentences to help you figure out the word.

Look closely at the word.

If the word has a prefix, try to say it, then take it off.

If the word has a suffix, try to say it, then take it off.

Look at the base or root word that's left. Does it resemble another word you know? For example, the base felon resembles melon.

Try saying the base word, then blend all the word parts together.

Reread the sentence and see if the word makes sense.

Ask a classmate or adult for help.

Look the word up in the dictionary.